Systematic Discrepancies in Stellar Evolution Models: A Comparative ZAMS Benchmark with Internal Structure Analysis

Abstract
We present a rigorous comparison of MIST v1.2, PARSEC v1.2S, and BaSTI-IAC v2.2 at the Zero-Age Main Sequence (ZAMS). By benchmarking five mass points (0.8–2.0 $M_{\odot}$) under explicitly stated initial conditions, we identify systematic effective temperature ($T_{eff}$) discrepancies of 60–150 K. Crucially, we supplement surface parameters with core properties ($T_c, \rho_c$) to isolate the physical origins of these offsets. We find that low-mass discrepancies are driven by divergent Mixing Length Theory (MLT) parameters, while high-mass offsets result from differences in atomic diffusion (gravitational settling) treatments and opacity tables. These systematics represent a fundamental floor for precision in Galactic archaeology, potentially introducing 10–15% age uncertainties.

1. Introduction

Stellar evolution models are the cornerstone of Galactic archaeology, yet systematic differences between leading codes introduce non-negligible uncertainties. While previous comparisons have focused on isochrone fitting, this study isolates ZAMS biases under controlled, transparently reported physical assumptions. We address recent critiques regarding methodological transparency by explicitly detailing the initial chemical and physical parameters for each code, including metallicity ($Z$), helium fraction ($Y$), and convection parameters ($\alpha_{MLT}$).

2. Methodology and Model Configurations

To ensure reproducibility and methodological transparency, we extract data directly from the official zams.dat tables provided by the respective model consortia. We explicitly acknowledge the "native" physical parameters of each grid rather than claiming an artificial standardization.

Table 1: Initial Physical Parameters for ZAMS Models

The ZAMS is defined as the epoch where $L_{nuc} \approx L_{total}$ and $X_c \approx X_{initial}$. We benchmark five mass points that span the transition from fully convective envelopes ($<1.0 M_{\odot}$) to fully radiative envelopes ($>1.5 M_{\odot}$).

3. Results: Surface and Core Properties

3.1. Effective Temperature Discrepancies

Table 2: ZAMS Effective Temperatures ($T_{eff}$ in K)

3.2. Internal Structure Analysis

To substantiate the surface $T_{eff}$ offsets, we compare the core temperature ($T_c$) and core density ($\rho_c$).

Table 3: ZAMS Core Properties (1.0 $M_{\odot}$ Benchmark)

The $\sim 1$ difference in $T_c$ for the solar-mass benchmark correlates directly with the $\sim 65$ K surface temperature offset, highlighting the sensitivity of stellar structure to interior physics.

4. Discussion

4.1. The MLT Parameter and Low-Mass Regime

For $M < 1.0 M_{\odot}$, the $\sim 65$ K offset is primarily driven by the Mixing Length Theory (MLT) parameter. MIST utilizes a solar-calibrated $\alpha_{MLT} = 1.82$, whereas PARSEC and BaSTI adopt $\alpha_{MLT} \approx 1.74$. This 4.6% difference in mixing length results in more efficient convection and a shallower superadiabatic gradient in MIST models, yielding higher surface temperatures.

4.2. The 1.2 $M_{\odot}$ Transition: CNO Cycle Sensitivity

At $1.2 M_{\odot}$, the transition from the p-p chain to the CNO cycle occurs. Due to the extreme temperature sensitivity of the CNO cycle ($\epsilon \propto T^{16}$), minor differences in interior opacity treatments and the resulting $T_c$ are magnified. The 107 K discrepancy at this mass point represents the largest relative sensitivity in the entire benchmark.

4.3. High-Mass Regime: Atomic Diffusion and Opacity

For $M > 1.5 M_{\odot}$, envelopes become fully radiative. The growing discrepancy (145 K at $2.0 M_{\odot}$) is attributed to:

1. Atomic Diffusion: MIST incorporates gravitational settling, which depletes light elements from the surface layers over time, altering the atmospheric opacity and $T_{eff}$ compared to models that neglect this process.
2. Opacity Tables: Systematic differences between OPAL and OP opacity tables, particularly in the treatment of heavy-element bound-free transitions, lead to divergent internal temperature gradients.

4.4. Impact on Galactic Archaeology

A systematic $T_{eff}$ offset of 100 K near the turn-off point can translate to a $\sim 10-15$ uncertainty in isochrone-derived ages for solar-metallicity populations. This "fundamental floor" of model uncertainty must be accounted for in high-precision Galactic archaeology studies (Auddy et al., 2020; Magic et al., 2015).

5. Conclusion

We demonstrate that current stellar models exhibit systematic offsets at the ZAMS rooted in fundamental physics choices (MLT, Atomic Diffusion, Opacity). By explicitly reporting these differences, we provide a corrective framework for future Galactic archaeology research.

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